1. Hydrocracking Process Details Example
2. Hydrocracking Catalyst
3. Hydrocracking Vs Hydrotreating
4. Hydrocracking Process Details Template
5. Hydrocracking Process Description
6. Hydrocracking Process Details Examples

One of the biggest challenges for the oil refining industry is raising the profitability or the so-called refining margin face to a scenario with environmental legislations increasingly restrictive, which requires high costly processes and the volatility of the crude barrel price.

Hydrocracking is an important source of diesel and jet fuel Source: Millennium Global, Inc., used with permission. A hydrocracking unit, or hydrocracker, takes gas oil, which is heavier and has a higher boiling range than distillate fuel oil, and cracks the heavy molecules into distillate and gasoline in the presence of hydrogen and a catalyst. Table 7.6 compares catalytic cracking (FCC, a carbon rejection process) with hydrocracking (HYDRCRC) with respect to the major attributes of both projects. Clearly, in a flexible refinery with a wide range of crude oil feedstocks, both processes are needed for the optimum conversion of the crude oil into desirable refinery products.

Despite the high investment for hydrocracking units construction, this process is what gives more flexibility to refineries to processing heavy oils, so with lower cost, on the other hand, these oils produces a high quantity of derivates with lower value added and with restricted markets like fuel oils and asphalt.

The hydrocracking process is normally conducted under severe reaction conditions with temperatures that vary to 300 to 480 oC and pressures between 35 to 260 bar. Due to process severity, hydrocracking units can process a large variety of feed streams, which can vary from gas oils to residues that can be converted into light and medium derivates, with high value added.

Among the feed streams normally processed in hydrocracking units are the vacuum gas oils, Light Cycle Oil (LCO), decanted oil, coke gas oils, etc. Some of these streams would be hard to process in Fluid Catalytic Cracking Units (FCCU) because of the high contaminants content and the higher carbon residue, wich quickly deactivates the catalyst, in the hydrocracking process the presence of hydrogen minimize these effects.

According to the catalyst applied in the process and the reaction conditions, the hydrocracking can maximize the feed stream conversion in middle derivates (Diesel and Kerosene), high-quality lubricant production (lower severity process).

Catalysts applied in hydrocracking processes can be amorphous (alumina and silica-alumina) and crystallines (zeolites) and have bifunctional characterístics, once the cracking reactions (in the acid sites) and hydrogenation (in the metals sites) occurs simultaneously. The active metals used to this process are normally Ni, Co, Mo and W in combination with noble metals like Pt and Pd.

It’s necessary a synergic effect between the catalyst and the hydrogen because the cracking reactions are exothermic and the hydrogenation reactions are endothermic, so the reaction is conducted under high partial hydrogen pressures and the temperature is controlled in the minimum necessary to convert the feed stream. Despite these characteristic, the hydrocracking global process is exothermic and the reaction temperature control is normally made through cold hydrogen injection between the catalytic beds.

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Figure 1 shows a typical arrangement for hydrocracking process unit with to reactions stages, dedicated to producing medium distilled products (diesel and kerosene).

Figure 1 – Basic Process Flow Diagram for Two stages Hydrocracking Units

According to the feed stream quality (contaminant content), is necessary hydrotreating reactors installation upstream of the hydrocracking reactors, these reactors act like guard bed to protect the hydrocracking catalyst.

The principal contaminant of hydrocracking catalyst is nitrogen, which can be present in two forms: Ammonia and organic nitrogen.

Ammonia (NH3), produced during the hydrotreating step, have temporary effect reducing the activity of the acid sites, mainly damaging the cracking reactions. In some cases, the increase of ammonia concentration in the catalytic bed is used like an operational variable to control the hydrocracking catalyst activity. The organic nitrogen has permanent effect blocking the catalytic sites and leading to coke deposits on the catalyst.

As in the hydrotreating cases (HDS, HDN, etc.), the most important operational variables are temperature, hydrogen partial pressure, space velocity and hydrogen/feed ratio.

Depending on feed stream characteristics (mainly contaminants content) and the process objective (maximize middle distillates or lubricant production) the hydrocracking units can assume different configurations.

For feed streams with low nitrogen content where the objective is to produce lubricants (partial conversion) is possible adopt a single stage configuration and without the intermediate gas separation, produced during the hydrotreating step, this configuration is presented in Figure 2. The main disadvantage of this configuration is the reduction of the hydrocracking catalyst activity caused by the high concentration of ammonia in the reactor, but this configuration requires lower capital investment.

Figure 2 – Typical Arrangement for Single Stage Hydrocracking Units without Intermediate Gas Separation

Normally for feed streams with low nitrogen content where the objective is to produce middle distillates (diesel and kerosene), the configuration with two reaction stages without intermediate gas separation is the most common. This configuration is showed in Figure 3.

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Figure 3 – Typical Arrangement for Two Stage Hydrocracking Units without Intermediate Gas Separation

Like aforementioned, the disadvantage, in this case, is the high concentration of ammonia and H2S in the hydrocracking reactors, which reduces the catalyst activity.

The higher costly units are the plants with double stages and intermediate gás separation. These units are employed when the feed stream has high contaminant content (mainly nitrogen) and the refinery looks for the total conversion (to produce middle distillates), this configuration is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4 – Typical Arrangement for Two Stage Hydrocracking Units with Intermediate Gas Separation

In this case, the catalytic deactivation process is minimized by the reduction in the NH3 and H2S concentration in the hydrocracking reactor.

Hydrocracking Process Details Example

Like cited earlier, the hydrocracking units demand high capital investments, mainly to operate under high hydrogen partial pressures, it’s necessary to install larger hydrogen production units, which is another high costly process. However, face of the crescent demand for high-quality derivates, the investment can be economically attractive.

The Residue Hydrocracking Units have severity even greater than units dedicated to treating lighter feed streams (gas oils). These units aim to improve the residues quality either by reducing the contaminant content (mainly metals) like an upstream step to other processes, as Residue Fluid Catalytic Cracking (RFCC) or to produce derivates like fuel oil with low sulfur content.

Residue hydrocracking demand even greater capital investment than gas oils hydrocrackers because these units operate under more severe conditions and furthermore, the operational costs are so higher, mainly due to the high hydrogen consumption and the frequent catalyst replacement.

Hydrocracking technologies have been widely studied over the years, mainly by countries with large heavy oil reserves like Mexico and Venezuela. The main difference between the available technologies is the reactor characteristics.

Among the hydrocracking Technologies which applies fixed bed reactors, it can be highlighted the RHU technology, licensed by Shell company, Hyvahl technology developed by Axens and the UnionFining Process, developed by UOP. These processes normally operate with low conversion rates with temperatures higher than 400 oC and pressures above 150 bar.

Technologies that use ebullated bed reactors and continuum catalyst replacement allow higher campaign period and higher conversion rates, among these technologies the most known are the H-Oil technology developed by Axens and the LC-Fining Process by Chevron-Lummus. These reactors operate at temperatures above of 450 oC and pressures until 250 bar.

An improvement in relation of ebullated bed technologies is the slurry phase reactors, which can achieve conversions higher than 95 %. In this case, the main available technologies are the HDH process (Hydrocracking-Distillation-Hydrotreatment), developed by PDVSA-Intevep, VEBA-Combicracking Process (VCC) developed by VEBA oil and the EST process (EniSlurry Technology) developed by Italian state oil company ENI.

Despite the high capital investment and the high operational cost, hydrocracking Technologies produces high-quality derivates and can make feasible the production of added value product from residues, which is extremely attractive, mainly for countries that have difficult access to light oils with low contaminants.

In countries, with a high dependency of middle distillates like Brazil (because his dimensions and the high dependency for road transport), the high-quality middle distillate production from oils with high nitrogen content, indicate that the hydrocracking technology can be a good way to reduce the external dependency of these products.

In petrochemistry, petroleum geology and organic chemistry, cracking is the process whereby complex organicmolecules such as kerogens or long-chain hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the temperature and presence of catalysts. Cracking is the breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more useful alkenes. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short ones. This process requires high temperatures and high pressure.^[1]

More loosely, outside the field of petroleum chemistry, the term 'cracking' is used to describe any type of splitting of molecules under the influence of heat, catalysts and solvents, such as in processes of destructive distillation or pyrolysis.

Fluid catalytic cracking produces a high yield of petrol and LPG, while hydrocracking is a major source of jet fuel, Diesel fuel, naphtha, and again yields LPG.

• 2Cracking methodologies
  • 2.2Steam cracking
  • 2.3Fluid Catalytic cracking

History and patents[edit]

Among several variants of thermal cracking methods (variously known as the 'Shukhov cracking process', 'Burton cracking process', 'Burton-Humphreys cracking process', and 'Dubbs cracking process') Vladimir Shukhov, a Russian engineer, invented and patented the first in 1891 (Russian Empire, patent no. 12926, November 7, 1891).^[2] One installation was used to a limited extent in Russia, but development was not followed up. In the first decade of the 20th century the American engineers William Merriam Burton and Robert E. Humphreys independently developed and patented a similar process as U.S. patent 1,049,667 on June 8, 1908. Among its advantages was the fact that both the condenser and the boiler were continuously kept under pressure.^[3]

In its earlier versions it was a batch process, rather than continuous, and many patents were to follow in the US and Europe, though not all were practical.^[2] In 1924, a delegation from the American Sinclair Oil Corporation visited Shukhov. Sinclair Oil apparently wished to suggest that the patent of Burton and Humphreys, in use by Standard Oil, was derived from Shukhov's patent for oil cracking, as described in the Russian patent. If that could be established, it could strengthen the hand of rival American companies wishing to invalidate the Burton-Humphreys patent. In the event Shukhov satisfied the Americans that in principle Burton's method closely resembled his 1891 patents, though his own interest in the matter was primarily to establish that 'the Russian oil industry could easily build a cracking apparatus according to any of the described systems without being accused by the Americans of borrowing for free'.^[4]

At that time, just a few years after the Russian Revolution, Russia was desperate to develop industry and earn foreign exchange, so their oil industry eventually did obtain much of their technology from foreign companies, largely American.^[4] At about that time, fluid catalytic cracking was being explored and developed and soon replaced most of the purely thermal cracking processes in the fossil fuel processing industry. The replacement was not complete; many types of cracking, including pure thermal cracking, still are in use, depending on the nature of the feedstock and the products required to satisfy market demands. Thermal cracking remains important, for example in producing naphtha, gas oil, and coke, and more sophisticated forms of thermal cracking have been developed for various purposes. These include visbreaking, steam cracking, and coking.^[5]

Cracking methodologies[edit]

Thermal cracking[edit]

Modern high-pressure thermal cracking operates at absolute pressures of about 7,000 kPa. An overall process of disproportionation can be observed, where 'light', hydrogen-rich products are formed at the expense of heavier molecules which condense and are depleted of hydrogen. The actual reaction is known as homolytic fission and produces alkenes, which are the basis for the economically important production of polymers.^{[citation needed]}

Thermal cracking is currently used to 'upgrade' very heavy fractions or to produce light fractions or distillates, burner fuel and/or petroleum coke. Two extremes of the thermal cracking in terms of product range are represented by the high-temperature process called 'steam cracking' or pyrolysis (ca. 750 °C to 900 °C or higher) which produces valuable ethylene and other feedstocks for the petrochemical industry, and the milder-temperature delayed coking (ca. 500 °C) which can produce, under the right conditions, valuable needle coke, a highly crystalline petroleum coke used in the production of electrodes for the steel and aluminium industries.^{[citation needed]}

William Merriam Burton developed one of the earliest thermal cracking processes in 1912 which operated at 700–750 °F (371–399 °C) and an absolute pressure of 90 psi (620 kPa) and was known as the Burton process. Shortly thereafter, in 1921, C.P. Dubbs, an employee of the Universal Oil Products Company, developed a somewhat more advanced thermal cracking process which operated at 750–860 °F (399–460 °C) and was known as the Dubbs process.^[6] The Dubbs process was used extensively by many refineries until the early 1940s when catalytic cracking came into use.^{[citation needed]}

Steam cracking[edit]

Steam cracking is a petrochemical process in which saturated hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller, often unsaturated, hydrocarbons. It is the principal industrial method for producing the lighter alkenes (or commonly olefins), including ethene (or ethylene) and propene (or propylene). Steam cracker units are facilities in which a feedstock such as naphtha, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethane, propane or butane is thermally cracked through the use of steam in a bank of pyrolysis furnaces to produce lighter hydrocarbons. The products obtained depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon-to-steam ratio, and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time.

In steam cracking, a gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon feed like naphtha, LPG or ethane is diluted with steam and briefly heated in a furnace without the presence of oxygen. Typically, the reaction temperature is very high, at around 850 °C, but the reaction is only allowed to take place very briefly. In modern cracking furnaces, the residence time is reduced to milliseconds to improve yield, resulting in gas velocities up to the speed of sound. After the cracking temperature has been reached, the gas is quickly quenched to stop the reaction in a transfer line heat exchanger or inside a quenching header using quench oil.^{[citation needed][7]}

The products produced in the reaction depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon to steam ratio and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time. Light hydrocarbon feeds such as ethane, LPGs or light naphtha give product streams rich in the lighter alkenes, including ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Heavier hydrocarbon (full range and heavy naphthas as well as other refinery products) feeds give some of these, but also give products rich in aromatic hydrocarbons and hydrocarbons suitable for inclusion in gasoline or fuel oil.^{[citation needed]}

A higher cracking temperature (also referred to as severity) favors the production of ethene and benzene, whereas lower severity produces higher amounts of propene, C4-hydrocarbons and liquid products. The process also results in the slow deposition of coke, a form of carbon, on the reactor walls. This degrades the efficiency of the reactor, so reaction conditions are designed to minimize this. Nonetheless, a steam cracking furnace can usually only run for a few months at a time between de-cokings. Decokes require the furnace to be isolated from the process and then a flow of steam or a steam/air mixture is passed through the furnace coils. This converts the hard solid carbon layer to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Once this reaction is complete, the furnace can be returned to service.^{[citation needed]}

Process details[edit]

The areas of an ethylene plant are:

1. steam cracking furnaces:
2. primary and secondary heat recovery with quench;
3. a dilution steam recycle system between the furnaces and the quench system;
4. primary compression of the cracked gas (3 stages of compression);
5. hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide removal (acid gas removal);
6. secondary compression (1 or 2 stages);
7. drying of the cracked gas;
8. cryogenic treatment;
9. all of the cold cracked gas stream goes to the demethanizer tower. The overhead stream from the demethanizer tower consists of all the hydrogen and methane that was in the cracked gas stream. Cryogenically (−250 °F (−157 °C)) treating this overhead stream separates hydrogen from methane. Methane recovery is critical to the economical operation of an ethylene plant.
10. the bottom stream from the demethanizer tower goes to the deethanizer tower. The overhead stream from the deethanizer tower consists of all the C
    ₂'s that were in the cracked gas stream. The C
    ₂ stream contains acetylene, which is explosive above 200 kPa (29 psi).^[8] If the partial pressure of acetylene is expected to exceed these values, the C
    ₂ stream is partially hydrogenated. The C
    ₂'s then proceed to a C
    ₂ splitter. The product ethylene is taken from the overhead of the tower and the ethane coming from the bottom of the splitter is recycled to the furnaces to be cracked again;
11. the bottom stream from the de-ethanizer tower goes to the depropanizer tower. The overhead stream from the depropanizer tower consists of all the C
    ₃'s that were in the cracked gas stream. Before feeding the C
    ₃'s to the C
    ₃ splitter, the stream is hydrogenated to convert the methylacetylene and propadiene (allene) mix. This stream is then sent to the C
    ₃ splitter. The overhead stream from the C
    ₃ splitter is product propylene and the bottom stream is propane which is sent back to the furnaces for cracking or used as fuel.
12. The bottom stream from the depropanizer tower is fed to the debutanizer tower. The overhead stream from the debutanizer is all of the C
    ₄'s that were in the cracked gas stream. The bottom stream from the debutanizer (light pyrolysis gasoline) consists of everything in the cracked gas stream that is C
    ₅ or heavier.^[1]

Since ethylene production is energy intensive, much effort has been dedicated to recovering heat from the gas leaving the furnaces. Most of the energy recovered from the cracked gas is used to make high pressure (1200 psig) steam. This steam is in turn used to drive the turbines for compressing cracked gas, the propylene refrigeration compressor, and the ethylene refrigeration compressor. An ethylene plant, once running, does not need to import steam to drive its steam turbines. A typical world scale ethylene plant (about 1.5 billion pounds of ethylene per year) uses a 45,000 horsepower (34,000 kW) cracked gas compressor, a 30,000 hp (22,000 kW) propylene compressor, and a 15,000 hp (11,000 kW) ethylene compressor.

Fluid Catalytic cracking[edit]

The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of solid acid catalysts, usually silica-alumina and zeolites. The catalysts promote the formation of carbocations, which undergo processes of rearrangement and scission of C-C bonds. Relative to thermal cracking, cat cracking proceeds at milder temperatures, which saves energy. Furthermore, by operating at lower temperatures, the yield of alkenes is diminished. Alkenes cause instability of hydrocarbon fuels.

Fluid catalytic cracking is a commonly used process, and a modern oil refinery will typically include a cat cracker, particularly at refineries in the US, due to the high demand for gasoline.^[9][10][11] The process was first used around 1942 and employs a powdered catalyst. During WWII, the Allied Forces had plentiful supplies of the materials in contrast to the Axis Forces, which suffered severe shortages of gasoline and artificial rubber. Initial process implementations were based on low activity alumina catalyst and a reactor where the catalyst particles were suspended in a rising flow of feed hydrocarbons in a fluidized bed.^{[citation needed]}

In newer designs, cracking takes place using a very active zeolite-based catalyst in a short-contact time vertical or upward-sloped pipe called the 'riser'. Pre-heated feed is sprayed into the base of the riser via feed nozzles where it contacts extremely hot fluidized catalyst at 1,230 to 1,400 °F (666 to 760 °C). The hot catalyst vaporizes the feed and catalyzes the cracking reactions that break down the high-molecular weight oil into lighter components including LPG, gasoline, and diesel. The catalyst-hydrocarbon mixture flows upward through the riser for a few seconds, and then the mixture is separated via cyclones. The catalyst-free hydrocarbons are routed to a main fractionator for separation into fuel gas, LPG, gasoline, naphtha, light cycle oils used in diesel and jet fuel, and heavy fuel oil.^{[citation needed]}

During the trip up the riser, the cracking catalyst is 'spent' by reactions which deposit coke on the catalyst and greatly reduce activity and selectivity. The 'spent' catalyst is disengaged from the cracked hydrocarbon vapors and sent to a stripper where it contacts steam to remove hydrocarbons remaining in the catalyst pores. The 'spent' catalyst then flows into a fluidized-bed regenerator where air (or in some cases air plus oxygen) is used to burn off the coke to restore catalyst activity and also provide the necessary heat for the next reaction cycle, cracking being an endothermic reaction. The 'regenerated' catalyst then flows to the base of the riser, repeating the cycle.^{[citation needed]}

The gasoline produced in the FCC unit has an elevated octane rating but is less chemically stable compared to other gasoline components due to its olefinic profile. Olefins in gasoline are responsible for the formation of polymeric deposits in storage tanks, fuel ducts and injectors. The FCC LPG is an important source of C₃-C₄ olefins and isobutane that are essential feeds for the alkylation process and the production of polymers such as polypropylene.^{[citation needed]}

Hydrocracking[edit]

Hydrocracking is a catalytic cracking process assisted by the presence of added hydrogen gas. Unlike a hydrotreater, hydrocracking uses hydrogen to break C-C bonds (hydrotreatment is conducted prior to hydrocracking to protect the catalysts in a hydrocracking process). In the year 2010, 265 × 10⁶ tons of petroleum was processed with this technology. The main feedstock is vacuum gas oil, a heavy fraction of petroleum.^[12]

The products of this process are saturated hydrocarbons; depending on the reaction conditions (temperature, pressure, catalyst activity) these products range from ethane, LPG to heavier hydrocarbons consisting mostly of isoparaffins. Hydrocracking is normally facilitated by a bifunctional catalyst that is capable of rearranging and breaking hydrocarbon chains as well as adding hydrogen to aromatics and olefins to produce naphthenes and alkanes.^[12]

Hydrocracking Catalyst

The major products from hydrocracking are jet fuel and diesel, but low sulphur naphtha fractions and LPG are also produced.^[13] All these products have a very low content of sulfur and other contaminants. It is very common in Europe and Asia because those regions have high demand for diesel and kerosene. In the US, fluid catalytic cracking is more common because the demand for gasoline is higher.

The hydrocracking process depends on the nature of the feedstock and the relative rates of the two competing reactions, hydrogenation and cracking. Heavy aromatic feedstock is converted into lighter products under a wide range of very high pressures (1,000-2,000 psi) and fairly high temperatures (750°-1,500 °F, 400-800 °C), in the presence of hydrogen and special catalysts.^[12]

Hydrocracking Vs Hydrotreating

The primary functions of hydrogen are, thus:

1. preventing the formation of polycyclic aromatic compounds if feedstock has a high paraffinic content,
2. reducing tar formation,
3. reducing impurities,
4. preventing buildup of coke on the catalyst,
5. converting sulfur and nitrogen compounds present in the feedstock to hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, and
6. achieving high cetane number fuel.^{[citation needed]}

Fundamentals[edit]

Outside of the industrial sector, cracking of C-C and C-H bonds are rare chemical reaction. In principle, ethane can undergo homolysis:

CH₃CH₃ → 2 CH₃•

Because C-C bond energy is so high (377 kJ/mol),^[14] this reaction is not observed under laboratory conditions. More common examples of cracking reactions involve retro-Diels-Alder reactions. Illustrative is the thermal cracking of dicyclopentadiene to give cyclopentadiene.

See also[edit]

Hydrocracking Process Details Template

References[edit]

Hydrocracking Process Description

1. ^ ^abGunter Alfke, Walther W. Irion & Otto S. Neuwirth (2007). 'Oil Refining'. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a18_051.pub2.
2. ^ ^abM. S. Vassiliou (2 March 2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Scarecrow Press. pp. 459–. ISBN978-0-8108-6288-3.
3. ^Newton Copp; Andrew Zanella (1993). Discovery, Innovation, and Risk: Case Studies in Science and Technology. MIT Press. pp. 172–. ISBN978-0-262-53111-5.
4. ^ ^abOil of Russia. American Cracking for Soviet Refining. Yury Evdoshenko
5. ^Kraus, Richard S. Petroleum Refining Process in 78. Oil and Natural Gas, Kraus, Richard S., Editor, Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Jeanne Mager Stellman, Editor-in-Chief. International Labor Organization, Geneva. © 2011. [1]Archived 2013-07-24 at the Wayback Machine
6. ^U.S. Supreme Court Cases & Opinions, Volume 322, UNIVERSAL OIL PRODUCTS CO. V. GLOBE OIL & REFINING CO., 322 U. S. 471 (1944)
7. ^'Ethylene Technology Sheet'. Archived from the original on 2017-08-28.
8. ^Korzun, Mikołaj (1986). 1000 słów o materiałach wybuchowych i wybuchu. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej. ISBN83-11-07044-X. OCLC69535236.
9. ^James H. Gary and Glenn E. Handwerk (2001). Petroleum Refining: Technology and Economics (4th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN0-8247-0482-7.
10. ^James. G. Speight (2006). The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum (4th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN0-8493-9067-2.
11. ^Reza Sadeghbeigi (2000). Fluid Catalytic Cracking is Handbook (2nd ed.). Gulf Publishing. ISBN0-88415-289-8.
12. ^ ^abcWeitkamp, Jens (2012). 'Catalytic Hydrocracking-Mechanisms and Versatility of the Process'. ChemCatChem. 4: 292-306. doi:10.1002/cctc.201100315.
13. ^Sadighi, S., Ahmad, A., Shirvani, M. (2011) Comparison of lumping approaches to predict the product yield in a dual bed VGO hydrocracker.Archived 2013-12-14 at the Wayback Machine , International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering, 9, art. no. A4.
14. ^Lide, David R., ed. (2006). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN0-8493-0487-3.

External links[edit]

Hydrocracking Process Details Examples

• Information on cracking in oil refining from howstuffworks.com
• www.shukhov.org/shukhov.html — Vladimir Grigorievich Shukhov biography